Looking Again at the Forelimb of Tyrannosaurus Rex
General Overview of Tyrannosaurus rex
This is the big skull of "Tufts Beloved T. rex" when it was being prepped at the Burke Muesum in Seattle.
Tyrannosaurus male monarch is 1 of the largest and most popular members of the Tyrannosaurus family of dinosaurs. This is this is probably considering it was one of the almost dangerous predators to ever walk earth. T. king is characterized by an oversized head with forwards facing optics, huge muscular jaws, robust serrated teeth, a powerful tail, and tiny arms.
T rex was the apex predator of its time. It was a powerful carnivore that hunted many big dinosaurs including the Ankylosaurs, Triceratops (Ceratopsids), Hadrosaurs, and the last of the Sauropods.
Although Tyrannosaurs have a long history, the species, T. rex, lived for a brusque time flow of about iii million years during the very end of the Cretaceous. The first fossils are around 67 million years old and the last fossils are 65 1000000 years erstwhile. It was the final of the Tyrannosaurs and went extinct with the rest of the dinosaurs during the end Cretaceous mass extinction upshot.
T. king only lived on the small island continent of Laramindia (now western North America). During the Cretaceous, a large seaway (the Western Interior Seaway) split North America in half. The western half of Due north America is chosen Laramindia and the eastern half is called Appalachia. Fossils of T. rex from Laramindia are establish from Canada downward into Texas. T. rex shared this isle continent with many other well known clades of dinosaurs including the hadrosaurs, and the ceratopsids, such equally Triceratops.
Isolated teeth and isolated bone fragments of T. rex are common, however, associated specimens are rare. Nether 60 partial specimens have been described by scientific discipline. (Here is the list). Among these specimens, but thirteen are over 25% complete. The about complete T. rex is called "Sue" (PR2081), which was found in 1990 in South Dakota. Sue is fourscore% complete and can be seen in the Field Museum of Chicago.
Map of the Belatedly Cretaceous of North America. The continent was carve up into two island continents by the Western Interior Seaway. The West was called Laramidia and the E was called Appalachia. Both island continents had different Dinosaur beast. T. rex was bars to Laramidia.
Image past the U.S. Geological Survey.
Tyrannosaurus male monarch Beefcake and Physiology - Body, Skull, Arms, and Speed
T. rex is a very specialized dinosaur with many unique anatomical features. These next paragraphs highlight some of the master features of this apex predator: T. king could vanquish other dinosaurs bones, it really used its tiny arms, and information technology was fast and agile!
The Body - Bulkier than previously thought
Prior to 2018, T male monarch skeletons were mounted as sleek looking dinosaurs, however, paleontologists working with SUE (the well-nigh complete T male monarch establish to date) at the Field Museum in Chicago figured out where the placement of a series of rib-like basic go. These gastralia bones go nether the ribs of T-rex, on information technology's abdomen and aided in the dinosaurs breathing. The add-on of these gastralia bones makes SUE have a bulging belly and widens it's rib cage. A comparison of the old mount of SUE and the new mountain are shown beneath in this Field Museum image.
This epitome shows how SUE's mountain inverse later the addition of the gastrialia bones. The left is from 2000, the right is from 2018. Notice how much wider and bulkier SUE is. Image from: JOHN WEINSTEIN/FIELD MUSEUM - Here is a link to the complete article from the Field Museum
YOUTUBE VIDEO
Here is a video from the Field Museum showing SUE's new look with the gastralia bones added.
Tyrannosaurus male monarch's Huge Skull and Powerful Bite! - "T. king the Bone Crusher"
Compared to other theropod dinosaurs, Tyrannosaurus rex had the largest, most robust, and about powerful skull. It was clearly specialized. T. male monarch underwent dramatic skeletal changes as it grew from a hatchling into a full grown adult. The skull starts out very slender with a somewhat long snout. However, as it aged, the skull became significantly larger, the snout became edgeless, and the jaws became very robust. By looking at an adult T. rex skull and comparing it to other theropods of the time, one can tell the jaws would accept been much more muscular.
In 2012, Bates did a calculator study of the bite force of a man, Allosaurus, juvenile T. rex, and an adult T. king (STAN-BHI3033). The study was much more accurate than previous estimates because they used "dynamic musculoskeletal models" to simulate the maximum bite forces of the animals. Bates found juvenile T. rex had a small bite force, indicating a diet of minor prey. While adult T. king had an incredibly powerful bite force, much higher than other theropods. The seize with teeth force was found to be between 35,000 and 57,000 Newtons per molar (up to 12,800 pounds of force per molar) (Bates, 2012). In layman's terms, Bates says, 12,000 lbs is the equivalent of an elephant sitting on a person!
T. rex bite strength is MUCH more powerful than whatever other land animate being EVER. While other theropods, like Allosaurus and juvenile T. rex's probably couldn't chomp through bone, an adult T. rex could trounce whatsoever os with ease. Information technology could have fed on fifty-fifty the largest dinosaurs. Dr. Bates concludes the extremely powerful bite makes "information technology one of the most unsafe predators to have roamed our planet."
This graph shows the bite force of T. rex compared to other animals, including similar theropods, crocodiles, some mammals, and the beast with the largest bite force known, C. megalodon.
Bite forcefulness values of the reptiles are from: Erickson, et al. (2012). The Sharks are from: Wroe, et al. (2008). Near dinosaurs from this tabular array are from: Bates and Falkingham (2012).
Tyrannosaurus rex's Tiny Artillery - Specialized, non useless.
Epitome of an arm of T. rex
T. rex 's artillery are probably the virtually perplexing characteristic of this terrifying dinosaur. For a 40 foot animal, they are only most the length of human artillery. While other theropods, such equally the Ornithomimosaurs, were developing long artillery, all of the big Tyrannosaurs across the globe had developed very curt and stubby arms.
A quick look makes many people call back they were useless and vestigial, and therefore they simply shrunk in size. However, the residual of T. male monarch 's anatomy appears to have been highly specialized. It would be strange to encounter a very specialized body plan that contains small useless artillery.
A closer expect at the few fossil arms of T. rex show they still had big menacing claws on their remaining two finger digits; they did not reduce in size. Also, Lipkin and Cerpenter (2008) establish that T. rex arms were actually incredibly powerful and muscular.
An image of very muscular, shortened arms with large claws shouts specialization. They were not vestigial. If they were highly specialized, like the residual of T. rex'south anatomy, the question becomes what were these strong, abrupt tooth picks used for?
This is a diagram of a Tyrannosaurus rex arm. This piece of work is by Conty (Public Domain).
Rothschild and Molnar (2008) investigated Tyrannosaur artillery. They looked for stress fractures in the arms of T. rex and found that stress fractures were common.
What's the big deal most stress fractures? A stress fracture is different from a break. Stress fractures occur during high impact and repeated activities. For example, stress fractures are not uncommon in people training for a marathon. Stress fractures occur with extensive use or overuse, not considering of trauma. This means T. male monarch was actively using its arms for something.
And so, what did T. rex use its arms for? This is where speculation comes to play. They could have been used for some sort of mating behavior. Maybe they helped T. male monarch go from a sitting to standing posture, or maybe they could have been used to stick into struggling casualty. The speculation goes on and on.
Rothschild and Molnar (2008), tried to tackle this question. When looking at predators, stress fractures occur in their limbs when holding onto struggling prey. Previously, in 2001, Rothschild and others studied the numerous stress fractures in the limbs of Allosaurus, a Jurassic theropod. They concluded this theropod actively used its artillery and legs to hold and grasp struggling prey. Rothschild and Molnar came to the same conclusion about T. rex'south artillery, that belongings onto struggling prey could cause this type of injury. Short muscular arms with large claws could agree the prey steady while the giant, bone crushing, jaws tore through the struggling dinosaur. Lipkin and Carpenter (2008) too support this. They annotation that the many injuries to the dinosaurs' shoulders were probably the result of predator-casualty interactions.
So, based on the research, what were T. rex arms used for? To hold onto struggling prey.
How fast could T. rex run?
We don't know, but it was congenital for agility and speed.
Effigy 2 from Sellers & Manning (2007). Click on the link to view the full article. This effigy shows body mass vs top speeds from the simulations. Tyrannosaurus rex is on the far right. The fastest theropod on thier chart is Compsognathus, a tiny 1m long critter.
The best way to gauge the speed of a dinosaur is to study dinosaurs tracks. Unfortunately, in that location is a lack of Tyrannosaurus tracks. There have been a few isolated footprints establish in the western U.S. and Mongolia, but these isolated footprints tell us cipher about the dinosaurs speed.
There have only been 2 trackways discovered so far.
1: The get-go trackway is from British Columbia. It was excavated between 2011 and 2012 and published in 2022 (McCrea et al, 2014). This trackway consists of 3 private Tyrannosaurs walking together. Based on the gate of i of the trackways, it has been deduced that one of the Tyrannosaurs was walking between vi.5 - 8.5 km/hr (4 - 5.iii mph) (McCrea et al, 2014). Unfortunately, this trackway is of Tyrannosaurs walking, not running. So the running speed from this trackway cannot exist determined.
two: The second trackway is from the Lance Germination in Wyoming. It was discovered nigh the Paleon Museum in Glenrock years ago, and with the help of Scott Persons, was recently researched and published on. These tracks are either of a juvenile T. rex or a Nanotyrannosaurus (Smith et al, 2016). Calculations based on the tracks give a speed of between 4.5 and 8 km/h (2.eight mph and five mph) (Smith et al, 2016). Similar the previous tracks, these tracks are of a fast walking or trotting dinosaur. And then, again, the running speed of a T. rex cannot be determined.
However, when compared to other dinosaurs, T. rex, had a faster walking / trotting speed than other large herbivores, including its prey, the duckbilled dinosaurs (Smith et al., 2016).
Until further trackways are found, nosotros must rely on other methods to deduce the maximum speed of a Tyrannosaur, such as the anatomy and physiology of the legs and tail, as discussed beneath.
Image of one of the Tyrannosaurus' tracks. Photo past Scott Persons, 1 of the papers authors: Smith et al, 2016.
Tyrannosaur legs and tail - Built for speed
In the by, T. rex was thought of as a tiresome and cumbersome dinosaur. It was often thought that due to its size, overcoming its own inertia would be difficult to practice. If information technology could not move as fast equally its casualty, T. rex would be a terrible hunter, and would therefore demand to resort to scavenging. Walking speeds from the 2 trackways gives walking speeds around iii-v mph, but say nada nearly it's running speed. This is where musculoskeletal models come into play.
Effigy 9 from Persons & Currie 2010. Click on the link to view the full article.
This figure shows the reconstructed tail musculature. The M. caudofemoralis muscle is the master retractor muscle of the hind limb. A larger retractor musculus indicates a faster animate being. Tryannosaurus had a large M. caudofemoralis.
A paper published in 2007 by Sellers and Manning shows that T. rex was non terribly slow. They adult musculoskeletal figurer models of iii living animals (including a human) likewise equally for five theropod dinosaurs. The speeds calculated for the three living animals were "in reasonably good agreement with accustomed values." For the theropods, they found the smaller ones were the fastest, while T. male monarch was the slowest. Although it was the slowest, the speed found was still a respectable 8 m/s (18 mph), which is faster than a sprinting human or an elephant. A table of their information is shown to a higher place. Sellers and Manning conclude that improved musculoskeletal models volition produce even more accurate values.
Later, in 2010, a more accurate T. male monarch musculoskeletal model was created by Persons and Currie. They looked at both the leg structure and the unique tail structure of theropod dinosaurs. Theropods have tails with a structure unlike any living animal today. Persons and Currie realized the tails weren't simply a large weigh, but an extension of the dinosaur's leg muscles. Some of the large tail muscles gave extra power to the dinosaurs' legs. These actress muscles also added mass to the tail which would help middle the inertia of the fauna (eye of mass). They say Tyrannosaurus had a "sizeable investment in locomotive muscle among theropods." They concluded that Tyrannosaurus had greater athleticism, in terms of running, residuum, and turning agility. This evidence suggests a much more mobile and agile animal capable of chasing downwards prey (Persons and Currie, 2010).
In light of this new prove, it appears T. rex may have been able to move a footling faster than the eighteen mile per 60 minutes value given by Sellers and Manning. T. king also has proportionately longer legs than other theropods, enabling it to have a longer footstep and faster gate. Then, when all the evidence is considered, it appears T. rex'south legs and tail were specialized for agility and speed.
Was Tyrannosaurus rex a Predator or Scavanger?
The debate as to whether or not T. rex was a predator or scavenger is not really a big debate. Nearly paleontologists hold that T. rex was an opportunistic carnivore. This conclusion is not only fatigued from fossils merely too from looking at predators today. At that place is no blackness and white line that separates a "predator" from a "scavenger." Nature is not that clear cut. To clarify, ane tin accept a look at living carnivores. A good instance is the lion and hyena.
The Lion
The lion is traditionally thought of as an apex predator in southern Africa. Even so, even though a typical lion will chase and kill over 15 animals per year, up to 40% of a lions food comes from scavenging carcasses.
The Hyena
On the flip side, the hyena is traditionally thought of equally a scavenger. However, information technology has been found that many hyenas hunt for most of their food. In fact, the spotted hyena hunts and kills every bit much every bit 95% of its own nutrient (Cooper et al. 1999), way more than a lion.
T. rex
Based on the facts, a hyena is much more than of a predator than a lion. Yet, neither is a pure predator or scavenger. They are opportunistic carnivores. If 1 researches well-nigh any noon carnivore, 1 will find they are a mix of both. So, it doesn't really makes sense to grouping T. rex every bit only a predator or scavenger. Similar most carnivores, it was probably a mix of both. How much it hunted vs scavanged will never exist known. However, scientific discipline tells usa T. king is designed every bit a predator, so it's reasonable to presume it would hunt it's share of food. Below discusses some of the predator traits T. rex has.
A cast of a T rex skull at the Academy of Natural Sciences in Philadelphia. Although the skull is slightly crushed, ane can see the eyes conspicuously look forward. This is a key trait of most active hunters.
Physical Bear witness
Physical trace prove of T. king either hunting or scavenging is thin. At that place have been many dinosaurs found with tooth marks, tooth pieces, and bite marks from T. male monarch. A study of T. king marks on Triceratops horridus specimens even show how T. rex would have eaten them... by pulling their heads off! There take been many digested dinosaur basic found at fossil T. rex sites (tummy contents). Bite and scrape marks from T. rex have even been constitute on the basic of another T. rex (Farke, et al., 2010). This means they ate each other! Still all of this evidence simply shows T. rex ate dinosaurs; it doesn't tell the states if T. rex hunted them or scavenged them.
However, a paper by DePalma et al (2013), studied a T. male monarch tooth embedded in a hadrosaur caudal (tail) vertebra. The interesting thing about this embedded molar is the tail vertebra began to heal over. This ways T. rex fleck into a living hadrosaur. DePalma's team believes the T. king intended to swallow the hadrosaur, but it managed to escape.
T. rex - designed to be a predator
Likewise the sparse trace evidence of predation, ane tin study the bodily anatomy of T. rex itself and run into if information technology was more than suited as a predator or scavenger. Looking at the various specialized torso parts suggests it was a well designed predator.
T. rex has a huge skull with large, impact resistant teeth. The jaws had the strongest bite strength of any land animal ever. Paleontologists argue these overly potent jaws and solid teeth would be ideal for capturing and holding struggling prey, fifty-fifty a large hadrosaur or triceratops.
T. rex'south optics are the optics of a predator. The dinosaur has frontwards facing eyes, not optics on the sides of the caput. Forward facing eyes gives an animal depth perception and is a cardinal trademark of predators.
As nosotros now know, the tail of T. rex contains an abnormally large muscle which would have given T. male monarch increased speed and agility.
In 2022 a newspaper was published past McCrea et al., discussing the first ever discovered trackway of a Tyrannosaurus. The interesting thing about this trackway is that it was made past 3 Tyrannosaurs side by side to each other at the same fourth dimension (McCrea et al, 2014). This shows some kind of "gregarious" or social beliefs, which lends credibility to Tyrannosaurs hunting in packs.
Figure ii from Carbone et al (2011).
This shows the average fourth dimension a T. rex would find a carcass compared to smaller dinosaurs. What it shows is by time the T. rex institute a carcass, it would already be scavanged by the many smaller dinosaurs.
Instead of looking at the actual fossils, another team (Carbone, et al. 2011) took a different arroyo to the hunter vs scavenger debate. They looked at T. male monarch in an ecological context, and studied the environmental conditions of the late cretaceous. Carbone and his teams intensive study looked at the mass and affluence of each carnivore and herbivore that coexisted with T. rex. They looked at their population densities and related it to a modern twenty-four hours ecosystem to calculate number of large carcasses available for T. rex to eat. They contend that smaller, more than arable carnivores would have quickly consumed carcasses, and that big carcasses would have been rare (Carbone, et al., 2011). The results suggest T. rex would take been unable to compete every bit a scavanger and would have had to hunt large casualty (Carbone, et al., 2011). If T. male monarch wasn't a predator, in that location would take to be another peak noon predator. None have been found.
Predador vs Scavanger Conclusion:
Predatory testify from studying the anatomy of T. rex, the healed hadrosaur vertebra, and the ecological report is hard to refute. In lite of this research, it seems clear that T. rex was an agile predator. Withal, similar apex predators today, it probably exhibits both predatory and scavenging behaviors. Just how much T. rex hunted vs. scavenged volition probably never be known, and it probably varied by the environmental conditions it lived in. What is known is that T. king was at the top of the food concatenation in Western North America during the belatedly Cretaceous.
Juvenile T. male monarch vs Adult T. rex vs Nanotyrannosaurus lancensis - More data required
Casts of Jane, a nanotyrannosaurus, and Pecks Rex, a tyrannosaurus.
Juvenile vs Adult Dinosaurs
Today, paleontologists realize that juvenile dinosaurs practice not wait like their adult counterparts. Besides the drastic size change, the skulls and other bones morphed and changed shape. Sometimes the youngsters look nothing like the adults. This makes determining a juvenile species of a particular dinosaur very difficult.
In the past when different looking skulls were establish, they were named a new genus and or species. Now, paleontologists have the daunting task of determining which species are valid and which species are simply juveniles of an already known adult species. A good example is famous ceratopsian, Triceratops. Back in the 24-hour interval, in that location were 16 species of Triceratops. Today, there are simply two. The other 14 "species" turned out to exist juveniles in different stages of growth.
This juvenile vs adult issue might besides be present in T. rex. The problem is there are not enough fossils to report. Adult T. rex fossils are hard to come up by, but it appears juveniles are even more difficult to find, especially when no one is sure what they exactly expect like.
The case of Nanotyrannosaurus lancensis
In 1946 Charles described a skull of a small-scale theropod that was eventually named Nanotyrannosaurus lancensis. This small skull was long and slender with many small sharp teeth. Later, in 2001, a nearly consummate specimen of N. lancensis was discovered. This specimen is called "Jane" (BMRP 2002.four.1).
The fact that no juvenile T. rex fossils had been discovered raised suspicions that Nanotyrannosaurus was actually a juvenile T. king. Some paleontologists took a second wait at Nanotyrannosaurus. They studied the holotype and concluded information technology was in fact a juvenile T. rex. Much of this was based on age determination of the fossil. Other paleontologists studied the skull and came to the conclusion Nanotyrannosaurus was its own species and not a juvenile T. rex.
Much of this was based on the fact that a closely related species (Tarbosaurus bataar of Asia) did non lose teeth as they aged, but for N. lancensis to exist a juvenile T. rex, information technology would have had to lose many teeth.
The debate notwithstanding goes on today. The problem is at that place is merely not plenty study fabric to validate whatever assumption. Other "juvenile" specimens have been found. Unfortunately, they are in private collections and are unavailable for study.
Juvenile T. rex's were apparently much smaller, and probably less robust than the adults. This means they probably occupied a different ecological niche than their adults. But is Nanotryrannosaurus a juvenile T. male monarch? For now, Nanotrannosaurus lancensis is officially a different species than Tyrannosaurus male monarch. The fence will not be settled until new fossil specimens are institute and studied.
Did T. rex have feathers? It was either fully scaled or mostly scaled.
An illustration of Yutyrannus huali, the behemothic feathered tyrannosaur that lived in a colder climate and over 60 million years earlier than T. rex
Illustration by Lida Xing and Yi Liu.
Since the discovery of feathered dinosaurs in the 1990'due south, it has become clear that many families of theropod dinosaurs had feathers, or at least, primitive plumage similar structures (protofeathers). Well known theropods such as velociraptor and microraptor had protofeathers. Tyrannosaurus is a very large theropod, and so could information technology have likewise had feathers? To answer this question, one needs to expect at the Tyrannosaur family and see if any of its relatives had feathers.
As it turns out, its relatives practise accept feathers. In 2004, a theropod named Dilong paradoxus was discovered in People's republic of china (Xu X. et al 2004). Dilong, a small-scale 1.vi m theropod, was establish to be covered in protofeathers; the "feathers" looked like pilus like strands (Xu X. et al 2004). Dilong is also considered to exist a afar member of the Tyrannosaurid family unit that lived 65 one thousand thousand years before T. rex. This means protofeathers are present in Tyrannosaurus' family unit tree.
Later, in 2012, Xu X. described another well-nigh complete feathered Tyrannosaur relative named Yutyrannus huali (Beautiful Feathered Tyrant). This theropod is a trivial younger in age, about 125 meg years onetime, and is more closely related to T. rex than Dilong. What's interesting near Yutrannus is that it'due south thirty feet in length. Although it'southward notwithstanding smaller than T. rex, it's the largest feathered theropod yet discovered. The uncomplicated feathers on Yutrannus are not well preserved, just they are up to 8 inches long and may have covered nearly of the torso (Xu Ten. et al, 2012). This discovery showed that even large theropods could exist covered in feathers, or feather similar structures.
Image of a skin impression from the tail of "Wyrex" tyrannosaurus dinosaur (BHI 6230). As one can run into, at least this part of the Tyrannosaurus rex had scales and not feathers.
Nevertheless, every bit tantalizing as it is, one cannot conclude that T. rex had protofeathers. A well preserved T. rex specimen found in 2002 named "Wyrex" (BHI 6230) was found with some small associated skin impressions from the neck, hip, and upper tail. All of the impressions clearly evidence intricate scales. No feather or hair similar structures are seen. In places on the body where Yutrannus shows feather structures, T. king only shows scales. So, information technology tin can be ended that T. rex was covered scales, non feathers.
One departure between Yutrannus and T. rex is the climate in which they lived. Yutrannus is from China and lived in a colder climate with harsh winters (Amiot et al., 2011). Many dinosaurs in that region had filaments and other protofeather like structures (Amiot et al., 2011). Peradventure Yutrannus needed protofeathers for insulation, whereas T. rex did not need it.
Another chief difference is all of the related Tyrannosaurs that had feathers are much older than T. rex, they are all from the Early Cretaceous. Tyrannosaur relatives from the Late Cretaceous all accept preserved skin impressions that clearly show scales (Bell et al. 2017). Possibly Tyrannosaurs lost their plume like structures past the end of the Cretaceous.
Finally, Carr et al. (2017) took a different approach and studied the bony texture of a skull of a new species Daspletosaurus horneri (A closely related Tyrannosaur). The type of texture on the skull bones bespeak they were covered in scales. Carr et al. concludes this dinosaur and other Tyrannosaurs had scaly faces.
Determination
What does this all mean? This shows that T. rex was either fully scaled or at least by and large scaled. The possibilility that T. male monarch supported feathers in only certain areas cannot be ruled out, or that babies and juveniles had feather structures but lost them every bit they anile. More than peel samples are required earlier this question can be fully answered.
This video below from the American Museum of Natural History shows the behind the scenes story of the museums T. rex makeover. They requite the adult T. rex feather similar structures in a few select areas and likewise fully comprehend their baby T. rex in downwardly. It looks so cute!
YOUTUBE VIDEO
AMNH Video showing the T. rex makeover and a babe feathered T. king.
Specimen ZCDM V5000, the holotype Yutyrannus huali. This image shows function of the tail section of the fossil. The faint feather strcutures tin be seen here. Epitome by Zang Hailong.
Specimen ZCDM V5000, the holotype Yutyrannus huali. This image shows the skull. Epitome by Zang Hailong.
Recommended Tyrannosaur Books and Fossils:
Tyrannosaurus Sue: The Extraordinary Saga of the Largest, Nearly Fought Over T-Rex Ever Constitute
This is one of the few adult books out in that location virtually T. male monarch. This truthful (non-fiction) story plays out similar information technology could be made into a movie. It discusses "Sue" one of the most famous Tyrannosaurs. Later on the discovery, a boxing began over the fossil. The battle was between commercial fossil hunters, corporate giants, major museums, law officers, government prosecutors, and a Native American tribe. This intriguing book is written from Peter Larson'south point of view, and covers the events in wonderful detail, including the authorities raid into the Black Hills Institute. Information technology'south a must read for anyone interested in Tyrannosaurs and interested in the corruption and ignorance that goes with a seemingly benign branch of science.
Tyrannosaurus rex, the Tyrant King (Life of the Past)
Peter 50. Larson, Kenneth Carpenter (Editors), 2008
This is ane of the best Tyrannosaurus rex books out at that place. It is a collection of everything T. rex, from information technology's range based on stratigraphy, why it has brusk arms, to soft tissue reconstruction. It includes many tables, drawings, and photographs. The volume also comes with an accompanying CD. The CD has loads of images and animations, including a simulation of the famous T. king, Stan. This is a wonderful resources for all things T. rex! The volume is, still, very technical and not for the casual audience. If you are a T. king enthusiast, this book is for y'all.
Elenco Science Tech T-Rex Skeleton 36" Calibration Replica Model
This is a 3 foot, true to scale, Tyrannosaurus skeleton with 51 realistic pieces. This is one of the most realistic replicas I have constitute on the internet. It'southward an crawly educational piece for any T-king fanatic, immature or former!
Get An Authentic Tyrannosaurus king Tooth:
T. rex is so popular information technology's difficult to imaging yous can actually take a real tooth from ane! Tyrannosaurus teeth are not that common. Usually you tin discover teeth from its afar cousin Carcharodontosaurus for sale. However, Fossil Era has a selection of real Tyrannosaurus teeth. Bank check 'em out!
Want to find your own Dinosaurs?
References / Works Cited
R. Amiot, X. Wang, Z. Zhou, 10. Wang, E. Buffetaut, C. Lecuyer, Z. Ding, F. Fluteau, T. Hibino, N. Kusuhashi, J. Mo, Five. Suteethorn, Y. Wang, X. Xu, F. Zhang. Oxygen isotopes of East Asian dinosaurs reveal exceptionally common cold Early on Cretaceous climates. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 2011; DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1011369108
T. Carr, D. Varricchio, J. Sedlmayr, East. Roberts, J. Moore. (2017). A new tyrannosaur with evidence for anagenesis and crocodile-similar facial sensory system. Scientific Reports. 7. 44942. x.1038/srep44942.
Farlow, O. James, Brett-Surman, Grand.K., Editors. (1997) The Complete Dinosaur. IN: Indiana University Printing.
Fastovsky, E. David, Weishampel, B. David (1996). The Evolution And Extinction Of The Dinosaurs. NY: Cambridge Academy Press.
Bong P. R., Campione N. E., Persons W. South., Currie, P. J., Larson, P. L., Tanke, D. H., & Bakker, R. T. (2017). Tyrannosauroid integument reveals conflicting patterns of gigantism and feather evolution. Biology messages, 13(half dozen), 20170092. DOI: doi/10.1098/rsbl.2017.0092
C. Carbone, South. T. Turvey, J. Bielby. (2011) Intra-guild contest and its implications for one of the biggest terrestrial predators, Tyrannosaurus rex. Proceedings of the Imperial Society B: Biological Sciences; DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2010.2497
Cooper, Due south.M., Holekamp, Grand.E., Smale, Thou. (1999) A seasonal feast: long-term analysis of feeding behavior in the spotted hyaena. Crocuta crocuta (Erxleben). Afr. J. Ecol. 37, 149-160.
Andrew Allen Farke, Nicholas R. Longrich, John R. Horner, Gregory M. Erickson, Philip J. Currie. (2010) Cannibalism in Tyrannosaurus rex. PLoS ONE, 2010 5 (x): e13419 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0013419
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